引用本文
李玉江, 石富强, 张辉, 魏文薪, 徐晶, 邵志刚. 川滇地区主要断裂带上的库仑应力变化及其对地震危险性的指示[J]. 地震地质, 2020,42(2): 526-546.
LI Yu-jiang, SHI Fu-qiang, ZHANG Hui, WEI Wen-xin, XU Jing, SHAO Zhi-gang. COULOMB STRESS CHANGE ON ACTIVE FAULTS IN SICHUAN-YUNNAN REGION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SEISMIC HAZARD[J]. SEISMOLOGY AND GEOLOGY, 2020,42(2): 526-546.  
DOI:10.3969/j.issn.0253-4967.2020.02.017
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川滇地区主要断裂带上的库仑应力变化及其对地震危险性的指示
李玉江1), 石富强2), 张辉3), 魏文薪4), 徐晶5), 邵志刚4)
1)中国地震局地壳应力研究所, 地壳动力学重点实验室, 北京 100085
2)陕西省地震局, 西安 710068
3)中国地震局兰州地震研究所, 兰州 730000
4)中国地震局地震预测研究所, 北京 100036
5)中国地震局第二监测中心, 西安 710054

〔作者简介〕 李玉江, 男, 1982年生, 2016年于中国地质大学(北京)获构造地质学博士学位, 副研究员, 现主要从事构造应力应变场与地球动力学数值模拟研究, 电话: 010-62842659, E-mail: toleeyj@126.com

收稿日期: 2019-10-28
基金项目: 国家重点研发计划项目(2017YFC1500500)、 国家自然科学基金(41874116)、 中国地震局地壳应力研究所基本科研业务专项(ZDJ2017-07)、 中国地震科学试验场专项(20150115)和中国大陆地震重点监视防御区任务共同资助
摘要

文中基于弹性位错理论与黏弹性分层介质模型, 考虑川滇地区及邻区历史强震的同震位错与震后黏弹性松弛效应的影响, 计算给出了1515年永胜 M7.8地震以来川滇地区主要块体边界断裂带与构造块体内部的库仑应力变化。 计算结果显示, 鲜水河断裂带南段、 安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带北段、 龙门山断裂带南段、 楚雄-建水断裂带与小江断裂带的交会处、 理塘断裂带沙湾段等断裂带上的库仑应力增加显著(≥0.1MPa)。 同时, 块体内部川滇藏交界区的库仑应力增加同样显著。 综合地震空区、 地震活动性参数及文中所给出的应力场变化结果分析认为, 安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带北段、 鲜水河断裂带南段、 龙门山断裂带南段和川滇藏交界区未来的强震危险性值得密切关注。 文中研究结果可为川滇地区未来的地震危险性分析提供力学参考。

关键词: 库仑应力变化; 黏弹性分层模型; 地震危险性; 川滇地区
中图分类号:P315.2 文献标志码:A 文章编号:0253-4967(2020)02-0526-21
COULOMB STRESS CHANGE ON ACTIVE FAULTS IN SICHUAN-YUNNAN REGION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SEISMIC HAZARD
LI Yu-jiang1), SHI Fu-qiang2), ZHANG Hui3), WEI Wen-xin4), XU Jing5), SHAO Zhi-gang4)
1)Key Laboratory of Crustal Dynamics, Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100085, China
2)Shaanxi Earthquake Agency, Xi'an 710068, China
3)Lanzhou Institute of Seismology, China Earthquake Administration, Lanzhou 730000, China
4)Institute of Earthquake Forecasting, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100036, China
5)The Second Crust Monitoring and Application Center, China Earthquake Administration, Xi'an 710054, China
Abstract

Coulomb stress change on active faults is critical for seismic hazard analysis and has been widely used at home and abroad. The Sichuan-Yunnan region is one of the most tectonically and seismically active regions in Mainland China, considering some highly-populated cities and the historical earthquake records in this region, stress evolution and seismic hazard on these active faults capture much attention.
From the physical principal, the occurrence of earthquakes will not only cause stress drop and strain energy release on the seismogenic faults, but also transfer stress to the surrounding faults, hence alter the shear and normal stress on the surrounding faults that may delay, hasten or even trigger subsequent earthquakes. Previously, most studies focus on the coseismic Coulomb stress change according to the elastic dislocation model. However, the gradually plentiful observation data attest to the importance of postseismic viscoelastic relaxation effect during the analysis of seismic interactions, stress evolution along faults and the cumulative effect on the longer time scale of the surrounding fault zone. In this paper, in order to assess the seismic hazard in Sichuan-Yunnan region, based on the elastic dislocation theory and the stratified viscoelastic model, we employ the PSGRN/PSCMP program to calculate the cumulative Coulomb stress change on the main boundary faults and in inner blocks in this region, by combining the influence of coseismic dislocations of the M≥7.0 historical strong earthquakes since the Yongsheng M7.8 earthquake in 1515 in Sichuan-Yunnan region and M≥8.0 events in the neighboring area, and the postseismic viscoelastic relaxation effect of the lower crust and upper mantle.
The results show that the Coulomb stress change increases significantly in the south section of the Xianshuihe Fault, the Anninghe Fault, the northern section of the Xiaojiang Fault, the southern section of the Longmen Shan Fault, the intersection of the Chuxiong-Jianshui Fault and the Xiaojiang Fault, and the Shawan section of the Litang Fault, in which the cumulative Coulomb stress change exceeds 0.1MPa. The assuming different friction coefficient has little effect on the stress change, as for the strike-slip dominated faults, the shear stress change is much larger than the normal stress change, and the shear stress change is the main factor controlling the Coulomb stress change on the fault plane. Meanwhile, we compare the Coulomb stress change in the 10km and 15km depths, and find that for most faults, the results are slightly different. Additionally, based on the existing focal mechanism solutions, we add the focal mechanism solutions of the 5 675 small-medium earthquakes(2.5≤ M≤4.9)in Sichuan-Yunnan region from January 2009 to July 2019, and invert the directions of the three principal stresses and the stress shape factor in 0.1°×0.1° grid points; by combining the grid search method, we compare the inverted stress tensors with that from the actual seismic data, and further obtain the optimal stress tensors. Then, we project the stress tensors on the two inverted nodal planes separately, and select the maximum Coulomb stress change to represent the stress change at the node. The results show that the cumulative Coulomb stress change increase in the triple-junction of Sichuan-Yunnan-Tibet region is also significant, and the stress change exceeds 0.1MPa.
Comprehensive analysis of the Coulomb stress change, seismic gaps and seismicity parameters suggest that more attention should be paid to the Anninghe Fault, the northern section of the Xiaojiang Fault, the south section of the Xianshuihe Fault, the southern section of the Longmen Shan Fault and the triple-junction of the Sichuan-Yunnan-Tibet region. These results provide a basis for future seismic hazard analysis in the Sichuan-Yunnan region.

Keyword: Coulomb stress change; stratified viscoelastic model; seismic hazard; Sichuan-Yunnan region
0 引言

地震的孕育和发生是孕震体应力、 应变能不断积累、 进入临界状态并最终失稳的力学过程(Reid, 1910; Scholz, 1990)。 因此, 要探讨强震的迁移规律并开展地震危险性分析, 最根本的途径是研究断裂带的应力状态及其动态演化过程(王仁等, 1980)。

库仑破裂应力作为表征断层应力状态变化的一种方法, 在强震间相互作用(Stein et al., 1992; King et al., 1994; 万永革等, 2000; Pollitz et al., 2003; 沈正康等, 2003; 陈连旺等, 2008; 韩竹军等, 2008; 单斌等, 2012; Li et al., 2015)、 断裂带应力场演化及地震危险性分析(Harris, 1998; Stein, 1999; Hubert-Ferrari et al., 2000; Toda et al., 2008; Wan et al., 2010; Xiong et al., 2010, 2017; He et al., 2011; 徐晶等, 2013; Shao et al., 2016)中得到了广泛应用。 特别引人关注的是, 在1999年Izmit M7.4地震发生前, Stein等(1997)和Nalbant等(1998)通过计算土耳其北安纳托利亚断裂带的库仑应力变化, 提出断裂带NW段的应力明显增加且具有较高的地震危险性, 而1999年Izmit M7.4地震的发生再次印证了这些认识的正确性(Hubert-Ferrari et al., 2000)。 以往的研究多基于弹性位错的模拟, 其结果较好地反映了应力变化的同震响应。 此外, 形变观测资料表明, 来自下地壳、 上地幔的黏性流变松弛效应所引起的震后几年至几十年时间尺度的区域应变率将发生明显变化(Li et al., 1987), 表明黏性流变松弛效应对于控制断层应力演化具有重要作用(Freed et al., 2001)。

川滇地区是中国大陆历史强震的活跃区之一, 前人从同震位错及震后黏弹性松弛效应等方面针对区域内单条断裂的应力场演化过程开展了一系列研究(张秋文等, 2003; 陈连旺等, 2008; 徐晶等, 2013; 尹凤玲等, 2018), 但仍缺乏对活动块体或块体边界断裂系应力场演化的系统研究。 同时, 基于活动地块与强震活动关系的研究认为, 中国大陆几乎所有8级和80%~90%的7级以上地震都发生在块体边界的断裂带上(张培震等, 2003; 张国民等, 2005)。 因此, 开展块体边界主要活动断裂带应力场演化的研究, 对于强震危险性分析具有重要的科学意义。

本文在前人研究的基础上, 收集了1515年永胜M7.8地震以来川滇地区M≥ 7.0地震及邻区M≥ 8.0大地震的震源模型参数, 利用PSGRN/PSCMP黏弹性介质分层模型(Wang et al., 2006)计算地震的同震位错及震后黏弹性松弛效应所引起的断裂带上的库仑应力演化和应力变化, 为潜在强震危险区的判定提供力学参考。

1 川滇地区的地质构造与地震活动性

川滇地区位于青藏高原东南缘, 是印度板块与欧亚板块碰撞的强烈变形地带。 区域内地质构造复杂、 活动断裂发育、 强震活动频繁(Zhang et al., 2004; 张国民等, 2005; Royden et al., 2008)(图1), 发育有鲜水河断裂带、 安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带、 金沙江断裂带、 红河断裂带和龙门山断裂带等大型块体边界断裂。 这些断裂将川滇地区及邻区划分为川滇块体、 巴颜喀拉块体、 华南块体、 滇西块体和滇南块体等次级活动地块, 并控制着强震的空间展布格局(Wang et al., 1998; 徐锡伟等, 2003; 张培震等, 2003)。 自有地震记录以来, 川滇地区共发生M≥ 6.7强震78次, 其中包括M≥ 7.0强震40余次(地震目录来自中国地震台网中心)。

图 1 川滇地区的地质构造与地震活动性
黑色圆点为M≥ 6.7的历史强震震中; 震源球为1515年以来M≥ 6.7历史强震的震源机制解。 AF 安宁河断裂带; CF 程海断裂带; CJF 楚雄-建水断裂带; DF 大凉山断裂带; DZDF 德钦-中甸-大具断裂带; HF 虎牙断裂带; JF 景洪断裂带; JSJF 金沙江断裂带; LCF 澜沧江断裂带; LF 龙日坝断裂带; LLF 龙陵-澜沧断裂带; LMSF 龙门山断裂带; LTF 理塘断裂带; LXF 丽江-小金河断裂带; MF 马边断裂带; NF 怒江断裂带; NTF 南汀河断裂带; RF 红河断裂带; RLF 瑞丽-龙陵断裂带; WQF 维西-乔后断裂带; XF 鲜水河断裂带; XJF 小江断裂带; YLF 元谋-绿汁江断裂带; ZF 则木河断裂带; ZTF 昭通断裂带Fig. 1 Geological structure and seismic activity in Sichuan-Yunnan region.

2 计算方法与模型建立
2.1 计算方法

根据库仑破裂假设, 岩石趋近于破裂程度的库仑破裂应力σ f为(King et al., 1994)

σf=τ+μ(σn+p)(1)

其中, τ 为断层面上的剪应力, 以断层滑动方向为正; σ n为正应力, 定义张性为正; p为孔隙流体压力; μ 为断层面的摩擦系数。

在实际研究中, 难以精确获得地下的应力张量。 因此, 地震学家经过一系列假定、 简化(Harris, 1998), 得到常用的库仑应力变化近似表达式(King et al., 1994)

Δσf=Δτ+μ(Δσn+Δp)(2)

式中, Δ τ 为断层面上剪应力的变化, Δ σ n和Δ p分别为断层面上的正应力和孔隙压力的变化。 如果Δ σ f> 0, 则有利于后续地震的发生。

为了简化孔隙压力变化的影响, 引入Skempton系数B', B'依赖于岩石体的膨胀系数和流体所占体积的比例, 取值范围为0~1, Δ p=B'Δ σ kk/3。 假定断层处比周围岩石更具有延展性, 则Δ σ n=Δ σ kk/3, 并定义有效摩擦系数μ '=μ (1-B')(Rice, 1992), 其给出了孔隙流体和断层面上的介质属性, 取值范围为0~1, 则库仑破裂应力变化Δ σ f变为

Δσf=Δτ+μ'Δσn(3)

参考前人的做法(King et al., 1994), 本研究中有效摩擦系数μ ' 取0.4。 采用弹性位错模型计算同震库仑应力的变化(Okada, 1985)和能更好地模拟震后短期和长期观测的Burgers体模型来模拟震后黏弹性松弛效应(邵志刚等, 2007; Shao et al., 2016)。

2.2 介质模型

参考川西地区人工测深剖面(王椿镛等, 2003)、 中国大陆及东昆仑断裂带下地壳和地幔岩石圈流变性质的研究成果(沈正康等, 2003; 邵志刚等, 2008; 石耀霖等, 2008), 确定模型的速度结构及下地壳、 上地幔的黏滞系数。 选择Burgers体模型模拟下地壳、 上地幔的黏弹性流变特性(Pollitz et al., 2001; 邵志刚等, 2007), 具体参数见表1。 由于川滇地区的强震多发生在10~15km深处(张国民等, 2002; 王椿镛等, 2003), 本文以10km作为断层面库仑应力演化的计算深度。

表1 黏弹性介质分层模型参数 Table1 Parameters in the stratified viscoelastic relaxation model
2.3 断层模型

川滇地区发育有鲜水河断裂带、 安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带、 金沙江断裂带、 红河断裂带、 龙门山断裂带等大型块体边界断裂带以及丽江-小金河断裂带、 龙陵-澜沧断裂带、 理塘断裂带等次级块体边界与块体内部断裂(邓起东等, 2002)。 前人利用地震地质、 古地震、 地震学反演等方法开展了大量研究(虢顺民等, 2000; 邓起东等, 2002; 徐锡伟等, 2003, 2005a; 张培震等, 2003, 2008; 韩竹军等, 2004; Wen et al., 2008; 刘鸣等, 2015; Sun et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017), 获得了较为精细的断裂带几何展布特征, 具体的走向、 倾角、 滑动角见图2。 另外, 由于针对金沙江断裂带几何特征的研究程度较低, 本文计算库仑应力变化时未考虑该断裂带。

图 2 川滇地区主要活动断裂的几何参数Fig. 2 Geometry parameters of main active faults in Sichuan-Yunnan region.

2.4 震源模型

基于已有的地震地质、 历史地震破裂、 震源破裂过程反演等研究结果, 获得了川滇地区M≥ 7.0地震及邻区M≥ 8.0大地震的震源破裂模型, 具体参数见表2。

表2 川滇及邻区M≥ 7.0大地震震源破裂模型参数 Table2 Source parameters of the strong earthquakes with M≥ 7.0 in Sichuan-Yunnan region and its adjacent area
3 研究结果

本研究根据历史强震同震位错模型和岩石圈分层介质模型, 利用PSGRN/PSCMP程序(Wang et al., 2006) 计算了46次历史强震的同震位错和震后黏弹性松弛效应引起的应力张量变化, 并将应力张量变化投影到断层节面上, 给出区域内主要断裂带上的库仑应力演化和应力变化。

3.1 川滇地区主要断裂带的库仑应力变化

结合川滇菱形块体北、 东边界及滇西南地区强震活跃期的研究结果(Wen et al., 2008; M7专项工作组, 2012), 分别选取1893年八美M7.0地震、 1833年嵩明M8.0地震、 1941年耿马M7.0地震作为鲜水河断裂带、 安宁河-小江断裂带和滇西南地区断裂带应力演化的起始地震, 在计算其它断裂带应力演化时考虑所有M≥ 7.0历史地震。 计算结果显示(图3), 强震的发生除造成断层破裂面的库仑应力明显减小外, 还引起破裂面两端延伸方向上的应力增加; 综合同震位错和震后黏弹性松弛效应引起的断裂带上的应力变化分析, 截至2020年, ①鲜水河断裂带南段、 ②安宁河断裂带、 ③小江断裂带北段、 ④龙门山断裂带南段、 ⑤楚雄-建水断裂带与小江断裂带交会处以及⑥理塘断裂带沙湾段的累积库仑应力显著增加, 应力变化≥ 0.1MPa; ⑦马边-盐津断裂带、 ⑧程海断裂带南段、 ⑨丽江-小金河断裂带南段、 ⑩红河断裂带北段、 ⑪龙陵-澜沧断裂带以及⑫瑞丽-龙陵断裂带南、 北段等断裂带的累积库仑应力增加比较显著, 应力变化≥ 0.01MPa。

图 3 川滇地区主要断裂带的累积库仑应力变化Fig. 3 Cumulative Coulomb stress change of main faults in Sichuan-Yunnan region.

3.2 川滇地区各块体内部的库仑应力变化

在已有的M≥ 3.0地震的震源机制解基础上(张诚等, 1989), 采用HASH方法(Hardebeck et al., 2002)补充2009年1月— 2019年7月川滇地区5675次2.5≤ M≤ 4.9地震的震源机制解。 利用基于震源机制解反演应力张量的方法(Gephart et al., 1984)得到0.1° × 0.1° 网格点的3个主应力方向和应力形状因子(Angelier, 1979; 万永革, 2015)。 为了获得整个研究区域较平滑的应力场, 以网格点为中心, 选取周围1° × 1° 区域的数据进行反演, 并保证震源机制解的个数> 4, 不超过10。 采用网格搜索法, 对反演获得的应力张量与实际地震数据进行残差分析, 以获取最佳应力张量。 对于震源机制解个数< 4的区域, 由于不能直接用震源机制反演其应力张量, 采用最小二乘配置方法分别进行插值计算(武艳强等, 2009)。 利用获得的应力张量确定最优破裂面和辅助破裂面, 具体结果见图4a。

由于地震潜在破裂节面的不确定性, Toda等(2011)在计算日本岛内的库仑应力变化时, 将最优破裂面和辅助破裂面分别作为接收断层进行应力张量投影, 计算2个节面上的库仑应力变化, 并以库仑应力变化的最大值代表该点的应力变化。 参考其研究方法, 本文将最优破裂面和辅助破裂面分别作为接收面进行应力张量投影, 计算块体内部的库仑应力变化。 从同震位错和震后黏弹性松弛效应引起的应力变化来看, 川滇藏交界区、 巴颜喀拉块体东部、 川滇块体东边界、 川滇块体南边界等区域的累积库仑应力变化比较显著, 变化量≥ 0.01MPa(图4b)。

图 4 川滇地区各块体内部的累积库仑应力变化
a 沙滩球表示最优破裂面和辅助破裂面(0.1° × 0.1° ); b 综合同震位错及震后黏弹性松弛效应共同作用的块体内部应力变化Fig. 4 Cumulative Coulomb stress change in each block of Sichuan-Yunnan region.

4 讨论

库仑应力变化可为地震危险性分析, 尤其是潜在强震发震地点的判定提供具有力学含义的参考依据(Stein et al., 1997)。 但是, 应力的变化量受到断层摩擦系数、 震源破裂模型等参数选取的影响。

4.1 结果的不确定性分析

以往的研究中, 断层摩擦系数的取值范围为0.2~0.8, 且多数研究经验性地取0.4(King et al., 1994; Wan et al., 2010; 单斌等, 2012)。 Parsons等(1999)认为高角度走滑断层可采用相对较低的摩擦系数(Xiong et al., 2010)。 考虑到断层摩擦系数的选取会影响断层面库仑应力变化的计算结果, 且川滇地区的断层以走滑运动为主, 本文以鲜水河断裂带为例, 进一步分析摩擦系数取0.2、 0.4和0.6时断裂带上的应力变化(图5)。 计算结果显示, 对于以走滑运动为主的断层, 地震的发生所引起的断层面的剪应力变化远大于正应力变化, 断层面的剪应力是决定库仑应力变化的主因, 摩擦系数的选取对计算结果的影响相对较小(图6)。

图 5 不同摩擦系数下鲜水河断裂带的应力变化Fig. 5 Stress change on the Xianshuihe Fault assuming different frictional coefficient.

图 6 左旋走滑型地震引起的应力变化
白色实线表示破裂段, 黑色实线表示相邻断层Fig. 6 Stress change caused by the left-lateral strike-slip earthquake.

同时, 为分析计算深度的选取对结果的影响, 本文进一步计算15km深度的库仑应力变化(图7)。 通过对比深度为10km和15km的计算结果, 发现对绝大多数断层而言两者差别较小, 但也存在如龙门山断裂带等极少段的计算结果具有较大差异的现象。 分析认为, 这主要与基于反演给出的汶川地震震源破裂模型的同震位移场空间差异性分布有关。

图 7 不同深度下主要断裂带的累积库仑应力变化Fig. 7 Cumulative Coulomb stress change of main faults at different depth in Sichuan-Yunnan region.

4.2 地震危险性分析

背景构造应力场和断层应力变化共同决定断层的地震危险性(石耀霖等, 2010)。 但由于区域构造应力场的大小难以确定, 库仑应力变化成为强震后余震发展趋势判断及断层地震危险性分析的重要依据(Stein et al., 1997; Toda et al., 2005; Syed Tabrez et al., 2008)。 相对于块体边界已有断裂带的应力变化, 块体内部的应力变化可为诸如隐伏断层或新生断层上潜在震源区的判定提供重要参考(Xu et al., 2013; 易桂喜等, 2017)。 库仑应力变化结果表明, 鲜水河断裂带南段、 安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带北段、 龙门山断裂带南段、 楚雄-建水断裂与小江断裂带交会处、 理塘断裂带沙湾段等断裂带及川滇藏交界区的应力明显增加。 同时, 地震活动性参数研究认为, 安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带北段、 鲜水河断裂带南段和龙门山断裂带南段存在明显的凹凸体分布(易桂喜等, 2006, 2008; 闻学泽等, 2008)。 另外, 基于地震空区可能是未来大地震发生的危险地段的认识(Sykes, 1971), Wen等(2008)综合强震地表破裂、 震源破裂及余震分布等资料, 提出川滇地区存在安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带北段、 龙门山断裂带南段和川滇藏交界区等地震空区(闻学泽等, 2009; M7专项工作组, 2012)。 此外, 尽管在龙门山断裂带南段的地震空区发生了2013年M7.0芦山地震, 但仍没有显著降低该断裂带SW段的地震危险性(陈运泰等, 2013)。 综合地震空区、 地震活动性参数及本文所给出的应力场变化结果, 安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带北段、 鲜水河断裂带南段、 龙门山断裂带南段以及川滇藏交界区未来的强震危险性值得关注。

需要说明的是, 由于针对川滇菱形块体西边界金沙江断裂带几何特征的研究程度较低, 本文未计算该断裂带的库仑应力变化, 因此未讨论该断裂带的地震危险性。

5 结论

本文基于弹性位错理论和黏弹性分层介质模型, 考虑川滇地区及邻区历史强震的同震位错与震后黏弹性松弛效应的影响, 给出了川滇地区主要块体边界断裂带与构造块体内部的库仑应力变化; 并结合地震空区、 地震活动性参数, 开展了区域地震危险性分析, 研究结果表明:

(1)系列强震发生后, 鲜水河断裂带南段、 安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带北段、 龙门山断裂带南段、 楚雄-建水断裂带与小江断裂带的交会处、 理塘断裂带沙湾段、 川滇藏交界区等表现出明显的应力增加, 变化量≥ 0.1MPa。

(2)综合应力场变化、 地震空区及地震活动性参数, 安宁河断裂带、 小江断裂带北段、 鲜水河断裂带南段、 龙门山断裂带南段及川滇藏交界区未来的强震危险性值得密切关注。

致谢 本文成文过程中得到了熊熊教授及何建坤、 陈连旺、 易桂喜、 崔效锋研究员等专家给予的指导和建议; 审稿专家对本文提出了宝贵的修改意见; 所有图件使用GMT绘制(Wessel et al., 2013), 在此一并表示感谢!

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