THE DISTRIBUTION AND RESEARCH PROGRESS OF MAIN MUD VOLCANOES IN CHINA

doi:10.3969/j.issn.0253-4967.2025.01.007

Abstract

Abstract:

This paper provides an overview of the distribution and research progress of mud volcanoes in China, and offers a comparative analysis of the physical and geochemical characteristics of mud volcano emissions from various regions. The findings are as follows:

Mud volcanoes in China are predominantly located along faults or fault zones, primarily in seismically active regions such as Xinjiang, Tibet, and Taiwan. A comparative analysis of emissions from different regions reveals that the solid components—primarily minerals like quartz and montmorillonite—are similar across locations. The liquid emissions generally exhibit high salinity. Geochemical analysis indicates regional differences in the sources of the emitted mud water: in Xinjiang, it mainly derives from a mixture of ancient sediment pore water and atmospheric precipitation; in Tibet, it originates from deep groundwater and atmospheric precipitation; and in Taiwan, it comes from marine sediment pore water mixed with atmospheric precipitation.

In terms of gas emissions, methane is the predominant gas released by most mud volcanoes in the study area, with smaller amounts of ethane, carbon dioxide, and other hydrocarbons. Notably, some mud volcanoes in Taiwan region emit higher concentrations of carbon dioxide and nitrogen, with smaller amounts of methane. Carbon isotope analysis of the emitted gases shows that the methane is of organic origin, as indicated by δ13C1 values.

In addition to the geochemical analysis, the microbial communities associated with mud volcanoes are also significant. The origin of methane suggests the presence of methane-producing microbial communities in the surrounding environments of onshore mud volcanoes. These microbes, including aerobic methane-oxidizing bacteria and anaerobic methane-oxidizing archaea, play a role in the formation of the emitted gases. In particular, these microorganisms are found in the soil environments of mud volcanoes in eastern Taiwan region, Wusu(Xinjiang), and Dushanzi(Xinjiang), where they use carbon dioxide as a carbon source to produce methane. In submarine mud volcanoes, the eruption process provides conditions for the growth of marine microorganisms, including methane-producing bacteria.

Mud volcanoes are generally triggered by four main factors: volcanic activity, tectonic activity, sedimentary processes, and anthropogenic influences. Given their prevalence in seismically active zones, the activity of mud volcanoes is often induced by seismic events. Eruptions typically result from increased pore pressure within the surrounding rock layers. Significant physical and chemical anomalies, including elevated gas emissions and changes in the height of the mud surface, are observed before and after seismic events. For example, following the establishment of a real-time monitoring system for the Wusu mud volcano in Xinjiang in 2011, multiple earthquakes in the area were associated with changes in the mud volcano's liquid level and increased emissions of methane(CH₄)and carbon dioxide(CO₂), which gradually returned to background levels post-earthquake. These geochemical changes have been observed in other regions as well, such as the hydro geochemical changes in the north Tianshan Mountains, following the Xinyuan M_S6.6 earthquake.

These observations suggest that mud volcano emissions may serve as indicators of seismic activity. Long-term monitoring of mud volcanoes could potentially offer a means of predicting seismic events.

Key words: Mud volcanoes, geochemistry, seismic monitoring, earthquake prediction, isotope geochemistry

摘要： 文中在系统介绍中国泥火山主要分布及研究进展的基础上, 对不同地区泥火山喷出物的物理和地球化学特征进行了分析。结果表明, 中国泥火山均沿断层或断裂带分布, 主要分布在新疆、西藏和台湾地区, 且各地区泥火山的固体喷出物矿物组分相似(如石英); 液体喷出物含盐度高, 对其进行地球化学分析发现, 泥浆水分别来自于古沉积物孔隙水、深层地下水和海洋沉积孔隙水与大气降水的混合, 分析泥火山泥浆水的来源有助于了解流体上移过程发生的改造作用; 大部分泥火山喷出气体以甲烷为主, 根据碳同位素特征可知, 泥火山喷出气体中CH₄均为有机成因。现有研究结论表明, 地震发生前后泥火山会出现明显异常现象, 对泥火山的长期监测可作为地震预测的依据。

关键词: 泥火山, 地球化学, 地震监测, 地震预测, 同位素地球化学

WANG Qian, PENG Lai, JIANG Yu-han, ZHOU Qi-chao, GAO Xiao-qi. THE DISTRIBUTION AND RESEARCH PROGRESS OF MAIN MUD VOLCANOES IN CHINA[J]. SEISMOLOGY AND GEOLOGY, 2025, 47(1): 90-116.

汪倩, 彭莱, 蒋雨函, 周启超, 高小其. 中国泥火山的主要分布及研究进展[J]. 地震地质, 2025, 47(1): 90-116.

Figures/Tables 17

Fig. 1 Global distribution of mud volcanoes(After Milkov, 2000).

Fig. 2 Regional geological map of the southern margin of the Junggar Basin(After TIAN Xiao-ru et al., 2017).

Fig. 3 Mud volcanoes in the north Tianshan region of Xinjiang.

Fig. 4 Distribution of mud volcanoes in Taiwan region(After JIANG Yu-han et al., 2020).

Fig. 5 Regional location of the Qiangtang Basin(After YAN Ze et al., 2018).

Table1 Chemical parameters of mud water ejected from mud volcanoes and nearby rivers in the Junggar region of Xinjiang(After Ma et al., 2022; MA Yong et al., 2022)

采样点	pH	阳离子浓度/mmol·L^-1				阴离子浓度/mmol·L^-1
采样点	pH	Na⁺	K⁺	Mg²⁺	Ca²⁺	Cl^-	S $O 4 2 -$	HC $O 3 -$	N $O 3 -$
艾其沟泥火山	7.2~7.6	46.3~98.1	0.18~1.94	1.82~4.16	0.43~1.77	16.8~36.8	0.09~0.51	未检出	0.7
安集海泥火山	7.7~8.1	156.0~261.2	0.12~1.70	3.28~6.75	0.61~1.70	119.5~198.4	0.43~1.4	未检出	1.60
独山子泥火山	7.9~8.5	161.5~235.8	0.09~1.82	2.97~4.17	0.77~2.15	207.4~315.3	0.49~1.75	未检出	0.01~0.68
白杨沟泥火山	8.3~9.5	64.1~263.1	0.01~2.83	0.14~0.69	0.09~0.61	49.3~196.7	0.32~2.68	21.8~80.0	0.01~0.68
白杨沟附近河水	8.0	6.62	0.60	1.46	3.51	4.67	2.64	9.2	1.23

Table1 Chemical parameters of mud water ejected from mud volcanoes and nearby rivers in the Junggar region of Xinjiang(After Ma et al., 2022; MA Yong et al., 2022)

采样点	pH	阳离子浓度/mmol·L^-1				阴离子浓度/mmol·L^-1
采样点	pH	Na⁺	K⁺	Mg²⁺	Ca²⁺	Cl^-	S $O 4 2 -$	HC $O 3 -$	N $O 3 -$
艾其沟泥火山	7.2~7.6	46.3~98.1	0.18~1.94	1.82~4.16	0.43~1.77	16.8~36.8	0.09~0.51	未检出	0.7
安集海泥火山	7.7~8.1	156.0~261.2	0.12~1.70	3.28~6.75	0.61~1.70	119.5~198.4	0.43~1.4	未检出	1.60
独山子泥火山	7.9~8.5	161.5~235.8	0.09~1.82	2.97~4.17	0.77~2.15	207.4~315.3	0.49~1.75	未检出	0.01~0.68
白杨沟泥火山	8.3~9.5	64.1~263.1	0.01~2.83	0.14~0.69	0.09~0.61	49.3~196.7	0.32~2.68	21.8~80.0	0.01~0.68
白杨沟附近河水	8.0	6.62	0.60	1.46	3.51	4.67	2.64	9.2	1.23

Fig. 6 Isotopic composition of hydrogen and oxygen in mud water in the Junggar region(After Ma et al., 2022).

Table2 Geochemical composition and stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope characteristics of mud volcanic fluids in Taiwan region(After Chao et al., 2013)

断裂带	样品编号	流体地球化学组成/mmol·L^-1						δD /‰	δ¹⁸O /‰	(⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁸Sr) /‰
断裂带	样品编号	Cl^-	S $O 4 2 -$	Na⁺	Ca²⁺	K⁺	Mg²⁺	δD /‰	δ¹⁸O /‰	(⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁸Sr) /‰
触口断裂带	中仑1号	135.6	0.41	223.5	1.90	3.06	2.21	-38.43	-3.7	0.7101
	中仑2号	261.5	0.20	388.3	1.19	7.49	1.23	-34.03	0.18	0.7113
	中仑3号	167.1	0.28	263.6	1.38	4.14	3.02	-32.1	-0.7	0.7105
	关子岭	79.9	0.23	171.5	0.16	3.82	0.32	-17.85	5.15	0.7108
旗山断裂带	新养女湖1号	122.7	0.14	150.7	0.29	0.79	0.34	-16.9	5.77	0.7108
	新养女湖2号	110.3	0.03	140.7	0.21	0.71	0.26	-17.6	6.23	0.7108
	新养女湖3号	111.3	0.15	143.7	0.43	0.70	0.43	-15.7	6.03	0.7107
古亭坑断裂带	盐水坑	436		431.3	2.41	1.86	4.04	-8.88	0.65	0.7106
	月世界	313		312.3	1.08	1.21	1.62	-12.73	1.47	0.7100
	小滚水	364.7		372.7	0.76	1.60	2.18	-11.97	0.06	0.7102
	滚水坪	331		341.3	0.92	1.87	2.08	-10.9	1.27	0.7106
纵谷断裂带	罗山1号	227.5		123.0	47.8	0.51	0.42	-1.7	-0.6	0.7068
	罗山2号	214		116.5	44.9	0.53	0.51	-1.3	-0.4	0.7069
	雷公火	357		146.5	92.6	1.02	3.38	-1.6	-1.2	0.7083

Table2 Geochemical composition and stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope characteristics of mud volcanic fluids in Taiwan region(After Chao et al., 2013)

断裂带	样品编号	流体地球化学组成/mmol·L^-1						δD /‰	δ¹⁸O /‰	(⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁸Sr) /‰
断裂带	样品编号	Cl^-	S $O 4 2 -$	Na⁺	Ca²⁺	K⁺	Mg²⁺	δD /‰	δ¹⁸O /‰	(⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁸Sr) /‰
触口断裂带	中仑1号	135.6	0.41	223.5	1.90	3.06	2.21	-38.43	-3.7	0.7101
	中仑2号	261.5	0.20	388.3	1.19	7.49	1.23	-34.03	0.18	0.7113
	中仑3号	167.1	0.28	263.6	1.38	4.14	3.02	-32.1	-0.7	0.7105
	关子岭	79.9	0.23	171.5	0.16	3.82	0.32	-17.85	5.15	0.7108
旗山断裂带	新养女湖1号	122.7	0.14	150.7	0.29	0.79	0.34	-16.9	5.77	0.7108
	新养女湖2号	110.3	0.03	140.7	0.21	0.71	0.26	-17.6	6.23	0.7108
	新养女湖3号	111.3	0.15	143.7	0.43	0.70	0.43	-15.7	6.03	0.7107
古亭坑断裂带	盐水坑	436		431.3	2.41	1.86	4.04	-8.88	0.65	0.7106
	月世界	313		312.3	1.08	1.21	1.62	-12.73	1.47	0.7100
	小滚水	364.7		372.7	0.76	1.60	2.18	-11.97	0.06	0.7102
	滚水坪	331		341.3	0.92	1.87	2.08	-10.9	1.27	0.7106
纵谷断裂带	罗山1号	227.5		123.0	47.8	0.51	0.42	-1.7	-0.6	0.7068
	罗山2号	214		116.5	44.9	0.53	0.51	-1.3	-0.4	0.7069
	雷公火	357		146.5	92.6	1.02	3.38	-1.6	-1.2	0.7083

Table3 Geochemical composition and content of fluids ejected from four vents of the Xinyangnuhu mud volcano(After MA Xiao-li et al., 2017)

样品编号	离子含量/mmol·L^-1						δ¹⁸O /‰	δD /‰
样品编号	Cl^-	Na⁺	N $H 4 +$	K⁺	Mg²⁺	Ca²⁺	δ¹⁸O /‰	δD /‰
SYNH01-1	123.8	165.6	0.38	0.72	0.477	0.123	6.54	-23.72
SYNH01-2	114.7	155.6	0.33	0.77	0.428	0.160	6.34	-22.68
SYNH01-3	125.6	170.6	0.42	0.92	0.449	0.171	6.59	-23.52
SYNH01-4	125.7	167.1	0.40	0.79	0.424	0.125	6.56	-21.44
SYNH01-5	108.4	144.86	0.40	0.68	0.397	0.134	6.59	-23.33
SYNH01-6	110.1	150.5	0.32	0.70	0.409	0.114	6.45	-22.99
SYNH01-7	124.3	167.6	0.47	0.88	0.481	0.174	6.28	-21.35
SYNH02-2	216.1	289.1	0.32	1.34	1.230	0.389	5.58	0.4
SYNH03-1	129.3	176.5	0.33	0.81	0.531	0.151	6.24	-12.90
SYNH03-2	198.1	254.5	0.49	1.10	0.621	0.127	7.01	-7.45
SYNH04-1	107.8	135.9	0.45	0.64	0.361	0.205	6.29	-21.20
SYNH04-2	150.1	186.6	0.30	0.84	0.634	0.280	6.78	-9.88

Table3 Geochemical composition and content of fluids ejected from four vents of the Xinyangnuhu mud volcano(After MA Xiao-li et al., 2017)

样品编号	离子含量/mmol·L^-1						δ¹⁸O /‰	δD /‰
样品编号	Cl^-	Na⁺	N $H 4 +$	K⁺	Mg²⁺	Ca²⁺	δ¹⁸O /‰	δD /‰
SYNH01-1	123.8	165.6	0.38	0.72	0.477	0.123	6.54	-23.72
SYNH01-2	114.7	155.6	0.33	0.77	0.428	0.160	6.34	-22.68
SYNH01-3	125.6	170.6	0.42	0.92	0.449	0.171	6.59	-23.52
SYNH01-4	125.7	167.1	0.40	0.79	0.424	0.125	6.56	-21.44
SYNH01-5	108.4	144.86	0.40	0.68	0.397	0.134	6.59	-23.33
SYNH01-6	110.1	150.5	0.32	0.70	0.409	0.114	6.45	-22.99
SYNH01-7	124.3	167.6	0.47	0.88	0.481	0.174	6.28	-21.35
SYNH02-2	216.1	289.1	0.32	1.34	1.230	0.389	5.58	0.4
SYNH03-1	129.3	176.5	0.33	0.81	0.531	0.151	6.24	-12.90
SYNH03-2	198.1	254.5	0.49	1.10	0.621	0.127	7.01	-7.45
SYNH04-1	107.8	135.9	0.45	0.64	0.361	0.205	6.29	-21.20
SYNH04-2	150.1	186.6	0.30	0.84	0.634	0.280	6.78	-9.88

Table4 Geochemical characteristics and stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope characteristics of the mud volcanic eruption fluid and surrounding water samples from both the Suona lake area and Goujiumaiyun trench area (After HU Dong-sheng et al., 1998; YAN Ze et al., 2018)

采样点编号	阳离子含量/mg·L^-1				阴离子含量/mg·L^-1			氢氧稳定同位素/‰
采样点编号	Na⁺	K⁺	Mg²⁺	Ca²⁺	Cl^-	S $O 4 2 -$	HC $O 3 -$	δD	δ¹⁸O
唢呐湖1号	833	92.8	13.5	127	93.3	56.3	未检出	-79.7	-9.3
唢呐湖2号	1009	104	8.7	100	258	92.1	未检出	-92	-10.5
唢呐湖3号	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出
唢呐湖4号	412	25.4	3.83	4.94	168	86.7	未检出	-75.2	-7.5
唢呐湖5号	465	18.2	1.73	3.42	227	9	未检出	-81.3	-8
泥火山湖水	7059~29106	259~992	184~430	94.3~未检出	8534~38444	1810~7102	2465~5704	-63.5~-34.2	-3.8~2.2
周围水样	3413~10250	137~389	46.2~255	208~257	4157~13105	944~2645	2060~2171	-120.4~-24.2	-13.1~2.3
苟纠麦孕沟泥火山	29.0	35.0		282.24	4118.8	539.63	1470.8		-8.74

采样点编号	阳离子含量/mg·L^-1				阴离子含量/mg·L^-1			氢氧稳定同位素/‰
采样点编号	Na⁺	K⁺	Mg²⁺	Ca²⁺	Cl^-	S $O 4 2 -$	HC $O 3 -$	δD	δ¹⁸O
唢呐湖1号	833	92.8	13.5	127	93.3	56.3	未检出	-79.7	-9.3
唢呐湖2号	1009	104	8.7	100	258	92.1	未检出	-92	-10.5
唢呐湖3号	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出	未检出
唢呐湖4号	412	25.4	3.83	4.94	168	86.7	未检出	-75.2	-7.5
唢呐湖5号	465	18.2	1.73	3.42	227	9	未检出	-81.3	-8
泥火山湖水	7059~29106	259~992	184~430	94.3~未检出	8534~38444	1810~7102	2465~5704	-63.5~-34.2	-3.8~2.2
周围水样	3413~10250	137~389	46.2~255	208~257	4157~13105	944~2645	2060~2171	-120.4~-24.2	-13.1~2.3
苟纠麦孕沟泥火山	29.0	35.0		282.24	4118.8	539.63	1470.8		-8.74

Table5 The composition and carbon isotope characteristics of gas emitted from mud volcanoes in the southern part of Junggar(After Ma et al., 2022)

采样点	泥火山喷出气体组成/%					δ¹³C/‰
	CH₄	C₂H₆	C₃H₈	CO₂	N₂	CH₄	C₂H₆	CO₂
白杨沟泥火山	85.3~88.9	2.25~4.98	0~0.02	0.29~0.63	8.07~9.31	-45.8~-45.0	-23.9~-20.6	22.9~30.6
艾其沟泥火山	71.9~77.7	4.44~5.38	0.01~0.04	14.5~19.6	2.14~3.26	-43.9~-40.9	-27.3~-26.0	30.07
独山子泥火山	86.0~88.7	5.21~5.68	0.19~0.83	0.06~2.10	3.11~5.75	-44.1~-39.0	-28.4~-25.0	13.6~20.7
安集海泥火山	79.2~86.6	4.93~5.52	0~0.02	5.80~9.20	1.56~5.85	-45.8~-45.0	-23.1~-22.2	27~33.7

Table6 Water soluble gas content and carbon isotope values from mud volcanoes in Qiangtang Basin, Tibet(After YAN Ze et al., 2018)

采样点	水溶性烃类气体含量/μL·kg^-1			δ¹³C/‰
采样点	CH₄	C₂H₆	C₃H₈	CH₄	C₂H₆
唢呐湖1号	1194	86.3	35.3	-46.1	-29.1
唢呐湖2号	684	36	13	-47.2
唢呐湖3号	2279	471	218	-46.0	-30.6
唢呐湖4号	594	37.9	14	-46.6	-28.1
唢呐湖5号	459	27.1	10.5	-46.9

Table7 Gas content and geochemical characteristics of some mud volcanoes in Taiwan region(After Yang et al., 2004)

采样编号	天然气组成/%				(C₂H₆+Ar) /%	空气校正成分/%
采样编号	CH₄	N₂	O₂	CO₂	(C₂H₆+Ar) /%	CH₄	N₂	CO₂
中仑1号	12.17	5.26	0.27	81.71	0.55	12.33	4.34	82.78
中仑2号	8.63	3.54	0.10	87.24	0.51	8.67	3.2	87.62
关子岭1号	4.26	4.18	0.99	90.53		4.47	0.55	94.98
关子岭2号	73.53	3.88	0.73	21.80		76.11	1.20	22.67
水火同源	92.06	5.55	0.59	1.76		94.71	3.46	1.81
小滚水	93.99	4.20	0.84	0.89	0.1	97.90	1.10	0.90
新养女湖1号	93.20	2.94	0.62	1.41	1.87	96.01	0.66	1.46
新养女湖2号	91.01	3.31	0.78	1.23	2.4	95.52	0.69	1.39
乌山顶泥火山	97.13	1.88	0.43	0.49	0.07	99.16	0.28	0.49
燕巢	95.41	2.92	0.65	0.99	0.01	98.44	0.53	1.02
滚水坪	92.60	2.61	0.60	3.78	0.39	95.33	0.39	3.89
恒春地火	83.36	9.83	2.27	0.33	4.09	93.47	1.55	0.36
罗山1号	91.20	7.76	0.53	0.07	0.44	93.56	5.93	0.07
罗山2号	89.39	9.29	0.70	0.03	0.59	92.47	6.91	0.03
雷公火泥火山	94.83	3.83	0.74	0.16	0.43	98.30	1.11	0.16

Table8 Gas and carbon isotope analysis of some mud volcanoes in Taiwan region(After Chao et al., 2010)

断裂带	样品编号	气体成分/%					CH₄/‰
断裂带	样品编号	Air	CH₄	CO₂	C₂H₆	C₃H₈	$δ 13 C 1$
触口断层	中仑泥火山	5.40~8.10	9.31~36.90	57.29~84.63	0.07~0.43		-35.14~-33.68
古亭坑断裂带	盐水坑	4.94	90.52	4.47	0.08
	小滚水	1.25	97.50	1.22	0.04		-60.22
	月世界	1.47~1.55	97.43~97.49	0.96~1.00	0.04		-56.16
	滚水坪	1.79	93.81	4.23	0.17
旗山断裂带	乌山顶泥火山	1.66~1.70	97.55~97.76	0.58~0.75			-35.46
	新养女湖泥火山	1.50~2.23	91.94~95.30	1.21~2.61	1.61~2.53	0.45~0.72	-35.65
纵谷断裂带	雷公火泥火山	3.93	95.73	0.19	0.14		-50.30
	罗山泥火山	9.71~52.55	47.28~90.16	0.06~0.14			-35.13~-34.39

Table8 Gas and carbon isotope analysis of some mud volcanoes in Taiwan region(After Chao et al., 2010)

断裂带	样品编号	气体成分/%					CH₄/‰
断裂带	样品编号	Air	CH₄	CO₂	C₂H₆	C₃H₈	$δ 13 C 1$
触口断层	中仑泥火山	5.40~8.10	9.31~36.90	57.29~84.63	0.07~0.43		-35.14~-33.68
古亭坑断裂带	盐水坑	4.94	90.52	4.47	0.08
	小滚水	1.25	97.50	1.22	0.04		-60.22
	月世界	1.47~1.55	97.43~97.49	0.96~1.00	0.04		-56.16
	滚水坪	1.79	93.81	4.23	0.17
旗山断裂带	乌山顶泥火山	1.66~1.70	97.55~97.76	0.58~0.75			-35.46
	新养女湖泥火山	1.50~2.23	91.94~95.30	1.21~2.61	1.61~2.53	0.45~0.72	-35.65
纵谷断裂带	雷公火泥火山	3.93	95.73	0.19	0.14		-50.30
	罗山泥火山	9.71~52.55	47.28~90.16	0.06~0.14			-35.13~-34.39

Fig. 7 Changes in mud volcanoes before and after earthquakes(After CHEN Zhi et al., 2014).

Fig. 8 Plots of liquid level changes of Aiqigou mud volcano before and after the four earthquakes(After LIANG Hui et al., 2018).

Fig. 9 Plots of changes in mud volcano liquid level before and after the Jinghe MS6.6 earthquake in Xinjiang.

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